Mars Through Time:
Climatic Transitions and Depositional Environments from the Pre-Noachian to Amazonian
Mossbah M. Kolkas, CPG-101801
Abstract Remote sensing and data gathered from multiple NASA missions to Mars indicate the presence of at least four major climatic
cycles that have shaped the Martian surface and governed its geologic evolution. The earliest cycle, spanning the Pre-Noachian and Noachian periods, was characterized by intense meteoritic bombardment, extensive volcanism, and significant crustal deformation. This was followed by a "warm and wet" period during the Noachian to early Hesperian, marked by widespread precipitation, fluvial activity, and the possible development of shallow epicontinental seas. Mineralogical signatures and sedimentary structures strongly support the prolonged presence of liquid water, with conditions potentially suitable for microbial life. A subsequent "warm and dry" interval in the Hesperian period witnessed the development of arid features, including evaporites, dunes, and playa lakes. Finally, from the late Hesperian through the Amazonian, Mars experienced alternating glacial and interglacial conditions, resulting in the formation of a glacial landscape that includes U-shaped valleys, cirques, aretes, grooves, tills, striations, and paternoster lake deposits. This paper integrates stratigraphic, geomorphic, and mineralogical evidence to propose a generalized paleoclimatic model for Mars, outlining climatic transitions and depositional environments and their implications for habitability.
Keywords: Mars, climatic cycles, depositional environments, paleoclimate, habitability, life on Mars
Introduction Mars, a terrestrial planet situated approximately 228 million
kilometers from the Sun, lies within the solar system's habitable zone (Smith et al., 2018). Despite this position, the planet experiences extreme surface temperature fluctuations due to its thin atmosphere and limited capacity for heat retention (Jakosky and Phillips, 2001). Typical surface temperatures on Mars vary widely, ranging from about +20 °C at the equator during daytime to around –120 °C at night, according to measurements from NASA’s Thermal Emission Spectrometer (TES) on Mars Global Surveyor. In the polar regions, winter temperatures can drop even further, reaching approximately –125 °C, near the frost point of carbon dioxide (NASA, 1999; ESA, 1999).
The Martian atmosphere is tenuous, exhibiting surface pressures below 1% of Earth's and dominated by carbon dioxide (~95%) provides insufficient thermal insulation, resulting in pronounced diurnal temperature variations (Madeleine et al., 2014). Mars is classified as a cold, arid desert planet, characterized by its distinctive reddish surface coloration, which arises from the widespread distribution of iron oxide minerals within the regolith (Christensen et al., 2001). The characteristic "Red Planet" hue has intrigued researchers since the earliest telescopic observations.
Geologically, Mars exhibits a diverse surface composed primarily
of silicate rocks and dust, encompassing extensive plains, deep canyon systems such as Valles Marineris, impact craters, and large volcanic edifices (Scott and Carr, 1978; Greeley and Batson, 2001). The Tharsis volcanic province is home to Olympus Mons, the tallest known volcano in the solar system, with heights of approximately 22 km (Neukum et al., 2004). Mars formed roughly 4.6 billion years ago, contemporaneously with Earth, reflecting common early solar system processes (Hartmann, 2005). The Geologic time of Mars is divided into Pre-Noachian, Noachian, Hesperian, and Amazonian (Fig. 1) The planet's average density (~3.9 g/cm³) and surface gravity (~3.73 m/s²) are lower than Earth's, due to a smaller core and reduced metallic content, factors which influence atmospheric retention and surface geologic activity (Zuber et al., 2000).
Reconstructing Martian paleoclimate is critical for understanding
its geological evolution and assessing its past potential for habitability (Carr and Head, 2010). Over recent decades, data acquired from NASA missions, including orbiters such as Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) and Mars Odyssey, landers like Viking and Phoenix, and rovers such as Spirit, Opportunity, and Curiosity, have significantly advanced our understanding of Martian surface environments (Squyres et al., 2004; Grotzinger et al., 2014). These investigations have identified several climatic cycles, each associated with distinctive geomorphic and sedimentological features (Kite et al., 2013; Wordsworth, 2016).
1. Department of Engineering and Environmental Science, The College of Staten Island (CUNY), 2800 Victory Blvd, Staten Island, NY 10314 (mossbah.kol-
kas@csi.cuny.edu)
www.aipg.org Jan.Feb.Mar 2026 • TPG 7
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