SUSTAINABLE MINERAL PRODUCTION
appropriate balance for each mineral deposit shown in Figure 2. However, the discussion among the various stakeholders about a particular deposit should also recognize society’s need for mineral products including acceptance of some level of adverse impacts.
The alternative for reaching a balance between maximum extraction and minimized adverse resulting impacts is by regulation. Oreskes and Conway (2010) in their Chapter 3 on acid rain point out that had regulations on reducing acid- rain-causing emissions from coal-fired power plants been adopted sooner than they were, not only would mitigation have occurred sooner, the economic incentive to develop new, more efficient, and less costly mitigation technology would have occurred sooner as well. Enacting laws or regulations requires political power. Oreskes and Conway’s review of the acid rain saga and the associated political aspects of the issue provide a good case history.
Finding new deposits to replace depleted ones Because natural resource deposits are depletable, natural
resource supplies can only be sustained by finding new depos- its. Even when substitutes for the use of a particular mineral product are found, deposits of the substitute minerals must be found. Grennan and Clifford (2017) observe, “Fundamental to a sustainable supply of raw materials for manufacturing industry is a mining industry; fundamental to a sustainable mining industry is a vibrant exploration industry; fundamen- tal to a vibrant minerals exploration industry is geology. The real problems of the technical and financial risk attaching to mineral exploration, and the importance of geology, are rarely discussed. Grennan and Clifford (2017) point out:
There are two principal reasons why exploration tends to be ignored in all of this debate. Firstly, the high risk of no success—exploration success in Ireland is around 5,000 to 1. Most people, especially those in government service or in academia, rarely understand why anyone would undertake such risks. This is why there is a special section within the Stock Exchanges for such high-risk companies. Secondly, having suc- ceeded in finding a viable deposit, the extent of the regulatory obstacles put in the way of development is enormous, and costly. They can be ameliorated, but the environmental lobby has totally captured the administrative system.
Mineral exploration and the risks involved are also impacted by the fact that the easily found deposits that occur on or near the surface have pretty much been found. The remaining deposits are further below the surface and harder to find. Wood (2018) observed that while the amounts spent on exploration have climbed significantly, the number of discoveries has declined. Wood attributes this to the continued focus on explor- ing for open-pit mining targets and suggests that exploration should refocus on targets requiring underground mining meth- ods. Wood and Hedenquist (2019) describe the needed changes in exploration strategy. Moving to underground mining meth- ods can change the environmental impacts but underground mining costs more on a per tonne basis that open pit mining.
Although changed exploration strategy is needed, it may or may not significantly reduce exploration risk. Grennan and Clifford (2017) cogently observe:
It has been argued that the best, and most efficient, way to find a deposit is to allow small exploration
24 TPG •
Oct.Nov.Dec 2020
companies to flourish, whereby they can raise high risk finance and/or obtain exploration funding from major mining companies. Whilst it is undoubtedly true that exploration costs are rising, the real escala- tion in costs is in the post-discovery pre-development phase. Few geologists will argue against an increase in environmental and reporting standards, and inevitably the smaller company cannot sustain the costs and is typically taken over by the larger part- ner. The major company, through social and regula- tory pressure accedes to the environmental/cultural/ administrative lobby. This in turn leads to increased costs being imposed both directly and indirectly on the developer, which leads to lower profits, and thus lower tax payments, resulting in the self-fulfilling prophecy that such companies avoid paying tax. This does not have to be the case.
Alternatives to consider—substitutes and improved technologies There are alternative routes to a sustainable supply of natu-
ral resources. Substitution of one mineral or metal for another is one alternative. Lead was formerly used as the primary
white pigment in paint until this use was banned. TiO2, largely from the mineral ilmenite, FeTiO3, is the current most com- monly used white pigment (reading ingredient labels reveals
the widespread use of mineral products in a wide variety of products if you know chemical formulas of common minerals,
for example, quartz, SiO2). Construction studs are available in wood or steel versions and some substitution between the two stud types does occur. Laminated wood beams have been used as substitutes for steel beams in buildings. Such substitutions will continue as the installed price for a particular metal or mineral product increases relative to the installed cost of the alternative, assuming job specifications are met. The relative amounts of platinum and palladium in automobile catalytic converters changes with the relative prices of the two metals.
New or improved technologies can make a huge difference. Agricola (1556, p. 217) noted that the second principal cause for mine closures was the quantity of water that flows in [that is, the inability to pump the water out or drive drainage tunnels]. The development of steam-engine driven pumps in the 18th century allowed the rejuvenation of the tin mines of Cornwall that had earlier supported the Bronze Age. Major improvements in the efficiency of mining equipment and tech- niques in the 20th century made possible dramatic improve- ments in open pit mining, which evolved from rail-based haulage to truck haulage. Similar improvements occurred in underground mines. Currently, the development of remote control, autonomous vehicles, and robotics technologies for mining equipment is expected to make significant technologi- cal advances in the coming years (Burgess-Limerick, 2020).
The extent to which substitutions and improved technolo-
gies will impact future mining and the timing of their adoption is unknown but significant impacts are expected.
Post mining uses of lands
Increasing attention is being paid to the post-mining uses of mined lands as shown by the following examples:
•Former aggregate mine pits (sand and gravel and crushed stone quarries) are being used for water storage.
•The ponds formed by aggregate mines are valuable features of new real estate development.
www.aipg.org
Page 1 |
Page 2 |
Page 3 |
Page 4 |
Page 5 |
Page 6 |
Page 7 |
Page 8 |
Page 9 |
Page 10 |
Page 11 |
Page 12 |
Page 13 |
Page 14 |
Page 15 |
Page 16 |
Page 17 |
Page 18 |
Page 19 |
Page 20 |
Page 21 |
Page 22 |
Page 23 |
Page 24 |
Page 25 |
Page 26 |
Page 27 |
Page 28 |
Page 29 |
Page 30 |
Page 31 |
Page 32 |
Page 33 |
Page 34 |
Page 35 |
Page 36 |
Page 37 |
Page 38 |
Page 39 |
Page 40 |
Page 41 |
Page 42 |
Page 43 |
Page 44 |
Page 45 |
Page 46 |
Page 47 |
Page 48 |
Page 49 |
Page 50 |
Page 51 |
Page 52 |
Page 53 |
Page 54 |
Page 55 |
Page 56 |
Page 57 |
Page 58 |
Page 59 |
Page 60 |
Page 61 |
Page 62 |
Page 63 |
Page 64
